{"id":11185,"date":"2025-02-28T09:29:34","date_gmt":"2025-02-28T08:29:34","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vocabulaires-ouverts.inrae.fr\/?p=11185"},"modified":"2026-02-20T11:13:17","modified_gmt":"2026-02-20T09:13:17","slug":"focus-sur-les-ontologies","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/","title":{"rendered":"Introduction aux ontologies"},"content":{"rendered":"\t\t<div data-elementor-type=\"wp-post\" data-elementor-id=\"11185\" class=\"elementor elementor-11185\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-55560009 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"55560009\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3b6b9d38\" data-id=\"3b6b9d38\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-76083cdc elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"76083cdc\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h1 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\">Introduction aux ontologies<\/h1>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-40c570f9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"40c570f9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Une ontologie est une repr\u00e9sentation de la connaissance sur un domaine. C&rsquo;est une vision d&rsquo;une partie du monde, une abstraction suffisamment g\u00e9n\u00e9rique pour couvrir de multiples situations mais \u00e9galement suffisamment ind\u00e9pendante d\u2019une situation donn\u00e9e.<\/p><p>Les ontologies vont permettre de :\u00a0<\/p><ul><li>disposer d&rsquo;un vocabulaire partag\u00e9 par les humains et les machines<\/li><li>typer et structurer les donn\u00e9es<\/li><li>r\u00e9aliser des inf\u00e9rences ou raisonnements logiques<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-50af069c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"50af069c\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-66 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3fd520da\" data-id=\"3fd520da\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ea5fbe5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-shortcode\" data-id=\"ea5fbe5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"shortcode.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-shortcode\"><div id=\"ez-toc-container\" class=\"ez-toc-v2_0_82_2 counter-hierarchy ez-toc-counter ez-toc-custom ez-toc-container-direction\">\n<div class=\"ez-toc-title-container\">\n<p class=\"ez-toc-title\" style=\"cursor:inherit\">Sommaire<\/p>\n<span class=\"ez-toc-title-toggle\"><\/span><\/div>\n<nav><ul class='ez-toc-list ez-toc-list-level-1 ' ><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-1\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Principes_theoriques\" >Principes th\u00e9oriques<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-2\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Quest-ce_quune_ontologie\" >Qu&rsquo;est-ce qu&rsquo;une ontologie ?<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-3\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Exemple_de_presentation\" >Exemple de pr\u00e9sentation<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-4\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Definition_formelle_et_definitions_textuelles\" >D\u00e9finition formelle et d\u00e9finitions textuelles<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-2'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-5\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Les_ontologies_en_pratique\" >Les ontologies en pratique<\/a><ul class='ez-toc-list-level-3' ><li class='ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-6\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Notions_utilisees_en_sciences_computationnelles\" >Notions utilis\u00e9es en sciences computationnelles<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-7\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Les_differents_types_dontologies\" >Les diff\u00e9rents types d&rsquo;ontologies<\/a><\/li><li class='ez-toc-page-1 ez-toc-heading-level-3'><a class=\"ez-toc-link ez-toc-heading-8\" href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/#Quelques_ontologies_de_reference\" >Quelques ontologies de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/li><\/ul><\/nav><\/div>\n<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6667bbfa elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"6667bbfa\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Principes_theoriques\"><\/span>Principes th\u00e9oriques<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a491c6b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a491c6b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Quest-ce_quune_ontologie\"><\/span>Qu&rsquo;est-ce qu&rsquo;une ontologie ?<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b7a3185 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"b7a3185\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Les ontologies sont une des composantes du Web S\u00e9mantique et soutiennent l&rsquo;hypoth\u00e8se d&rsquo;un monde ouvert (\u00ab\u00a0Open-world assumption\u00a0\u00bb).\u00a0 <\/strong>Cette hypoth\u00e8se stipule que ce qui n&rsquo;est pas connu pour \u00eatre vrai n&rsquo;est pas n\u00e9cessairement faux, mais peut simplement \u00eatre trouv\u00e9 ailleurs sur le web, de par sa nature distribu\u00e9e. <strong>En pratique, cela signifie que les conclusions ne peuvent \u00eatre tir\u00e9es qu&rsquo;\u00e0 partir d&rsquo;axiomes explicitement \u00e9nonc\u00e9s<\/strong>. Cela constitue une diff\u00e9rence fondamentale avec les mod\u00e8les de donn\u00e9es classiques qui se positionnent dans un monde ferm\u00e9 relativement restreint o\u00f9 l&rsquo;ensemble des donn\u00e9es doit \u00eatre typ\u00e9 sp\u00e9cifiquement par rapport \u00e0 une application donn\u00e9e.<\/p><p><strong>Selon la d\u00e9finition bien connue dans la litt\u00e9rature sur l&rsquo;intelligence artificielle, une ontologie est une sp\u00e9cification formelle et explicite d&rsquo;une conceptualisation partag\u00e9e d&rsquo;un domaine [1-5].<\/strong><\/p><ul><li><strong>La sp\u00e9cification<\/strong> est la traduction du mod\u00e8le dans un langage formel. Elle est <strong>formelle et explicite <\/strong>parce qu&rsquo;elle est structur\u00e9e et qu&rsquo;elle relie les concepts avec des propri\u00e9t\u00e9s, des contraintes et des r\u00e8gles.<\/li><li>\u00a0<strong>La conceptualisation<\/strong> est li\u00e9e \u00e0 la perception r\u00e9elle d&rsquo;un domaine par un groupe de personnes expertes dans ce domaine. Elle est <strong>partag\u00e9e<\/strong> parce qu&rsquo;elle est intersubjective et doit \u00eatre d\u00e9velopp\u00e9e main dans la main avec toutes les parties prenantes pour \u00eatre coh\u00e9rente et inclusive.<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-51fb4ba elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"51fb4ba\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div><p><strong>Les classes sont les principaux \u00e9l\u00e9ments constitutifs d&rsquo;une ontologie et sont utilis\u00e9es pour repr\u00e9senter et d\u00e9crire les concepts d&rsquo;un domaine. <\/strong>Elles sont organis\u00e9es hi\u00e9rarchiquement, de sorte que chaque classe peut avoir des superclasses et des sous-classes (g\u00e9n\u00e9ralisation\/sp\u00e9cialisation) permettant ainsi l&rsquo;h\u00e9ritage de propri\u00e9t\u00e9s. Les classes sont \u00e9galement reli\u00e9es entre elles par d&rsquo;autres types de relations sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/p><p><strong>L\u2019ontologie permet de d\u00e9finir le contexte sous la forme de contraintes et de r\u00e8gles au sujet des \u00e9tats possibles des \u00ab affaires \u00bb ou \u00ab \u00e9tats du monde \u00bb<\/strong> qui existent dans un domaine, et qui nous aident \u00e0 comprendre ce que sont exactement ces concepts et de quelle mani\u00e8re ils peuvent \u00eatre li\u00e9s les uns aux autres.<\/p><p><strong>La repr\u00e9sentation symbolique est une mani\u00e8re de mod\u00e9liser la connaissance en utilisant des concepts et les symboles tels que les mots repr\u00e9sentant le langage naturel.<\/strong> Les connaissances sont alors formul\u00e9es explicitement \u00e0 l&rsquo;aide d&rsquo;\u00e9l\u00e9ments \u00e9l\u00e9mentaires, souvent appel\u00e9s \u00ab\u00a0\u00e9nonc\u00e9s\u00a0\u00bb ou \u00ab\u00a0propositions\u00a0\u00bb.<\/p><p>On appelle <strong>\u00ab\u00a0engagement ontologique\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong> le consensus \u00e9tabli pour utiliser le vocabulaire partag\u00e9 de mani\u00e8re coh\u00e9rente et consistante dans un contexte pr\u00e9cis.<\/p><p><strong>Il existe des outils OWL &#8211; des raisonneurs &#8211; qui peuvent calculer automatiquement les cons\u00e9quences logiques<\/strong> appel\u00e9es <strong>\u00ab\u00a0inf\u00e9rences\u00a0\u00bb<\/strong>.<\/p><\/div>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c731035 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"c731035\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a3f49b9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"a3f49b9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2bb5f474\" data-id=\"2bb5f474\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8e18099 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"8e18099\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3a9b879 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"3a9b879\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/types-de-vocabulaires-et-usages\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"Les types de vocabulaires et leurs usages\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/types-de-vocabulaires-et-usages\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLes types de vocabulaires et leurs usages\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3623c23 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"3623c23\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3fb4635 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"3fb4635\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-866e128 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"866e128\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ebfc6c1\" data-id=\"ebfc6c1\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\" data-settings=\"{&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a35f98c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"a35f98c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Exemple_de_presentation\"><\/span>Exemple de pr\u00e9sentation<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e065d88 elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider\" data-id=\"e065d88\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"divider.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-divider\">\n\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-divider-separator\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0f4d782 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0f4d782\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>On fait souvent l\u2019amalgame entre <strong>l\u2019ontologie<\/strong> (<strong>le sch\u00e9ma ou mod\u00e8le<\/strong>) et <strong>les instances<\/strong> (<strong>les individus qui peuplent l&rsquo;ontologie<\/strong>). Les donn\u00e9es une fois typ\u00e9es \u00e0 l\u2019aide de l\u2019ontologie et assembl\u00e9es sous forme de graphes RDF constituent <strong>une base de connaissances<\/strong> (Knowledge base).<\/p><p><strong>La figure ci-dessous pr\u00e9sente un exemple de petite ontologie ainsi que des valeurs de donn\u00e9es (instances) d\u00e9crites \u00e0 l&rsquo;aide de l&rsquo;ontologie.<\/strong><\/p><figure id=\"attachment_11338\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-11338\" style=\"width: 794px\" class=\"wp-caption aligncenter\"><a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/45\/2025\/04\/Picture1.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-11338\" src=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/45\/2025\/04\/Picture1.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"794\" height=\"351\" srcset=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/45\/2025\/04\/Picture1.png 624w, https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/45\/2025\/04\/Picture1-300x133.png 300w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 794px) 100vw, 794px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-11338\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Figure extraite du rapport EFSA \u00ab Ontologies and Case studies \u00bb, Tzitzikas et al (2023)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-d98b335 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"d98b335\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Dans cet exemple, les <strong>rectangles bleus<\/strong> repr\u00e9sentent les <strong>classes<\/strong> de l&rsquo;ontologie (par exemple, Objet physique, Acteur, Personne), les <strong>rectangles verts<\/strong> sont <strong>des instances <\/strong>(par exemple, Yannis, EFSA, 85 Kg), les<strong> fl\u00e8ches doubles<\/strong> repr\u00e9sentent <strong>les hi\u00e9rarchies de<\/strong><strong> classes et <\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong><strong>sous-classes<\/strong> (isA) (par exemple, Person isA Physical Object ou Organization isA Actor), les <strong>fl\u00e8ches simples<\/strong> repr\u00e9sentent<strong> les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s<\/strong> (par exemple, has_weight) et les <strong>fl\u00e8ches en pointill\u00e9s<\/strong> repr\u00e9sentent les <strong>relations d\u2019instances.<\/strong> Les relations isA permettent d&rsquo;exprimer des informations bien qu&rsquo;elles ne\u00a0soient pas explicitement d\u00e9finies, comme le fait qu&rsquo;une personne a un\u00a0poids (Yannis a un poids de 85 kg), <strong>d\u00e9duit<\/strong> du fait que la classe\u00a0Personne est une sous-classe de la classe Objet physique. De m\u00eame, une\u00a0organisation a une adresse postale (l&rsquo;EFSA a pour adresse \u00ab Via Carlo\u00a0Magno 1A 43126 Parma &#8211; Italy \u00bb), ce qui est <strong>d\u00e9duit<\/strong> du fait que la classe\u00a0Organisation est une sous-classe de la classe Acteur.<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-cdb1059\" data-id=\"cdb1059\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cd5fdee elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"cd5fdee\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-83cccf0 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"83cccf0\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-66 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-670abfb\" data-id=\"670abfb\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-124faa9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"124faa9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-97cd84a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"97cd84a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Definition_formelle_et_definitions_textuelles\"><\/span>D\u00e9finition formelle et d\u00e9finitions textuelles<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0eba6b6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"0eba6b6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Les classes, propri\u00e9t\u00e9s et contraintes constituent la <strong>d\u00e9finition formelle<\/strong> de l\u2019ontologie (axiomatisation).\u00a0 Cette d\u00e9finition formelle destin\u00e9e aux machines est compl\u00e9t\u00e9e par des d\u00e9finition textuelles compr\u00e9hensibles par les humains.<\/p><p><strong>Les<\/strong> <strong>d\u00e9finitions<\/strong>, <strong>qu\u2019elles soient textuelles ou formelles, sont une repr\u00e9sentation d&rsquo;un concept par une description<\/strong>, un \u00e9nonc\u00e9 de sa signification qui le distingue d&rsquo;autres concepts similaires [6]. Elles peuvent \u00eatre de deux types :<\/p><ul><li>intentionnelles : elles\u00a0sp\u00e9cifient une condition logique qui fera la diff\u00e9rence entre objets qui\u00a0la satisfont et par cons\u00e9quent appartiendront \u00e0 la classe et ceux qui\u00a0ne la v\u00e9rifient pas.<\/li><li>extensionnelles : elles listent explicitement tous les \u00e9l\u00e9ments qui correspondent \u00e0 la d\u00e9finition<\/li><\/ul><p><strong>En pratique, les d\u00e9finitions formelles sont d\u00e9crites en OWL<\/strong>, le Web Ontology Language et en particulier la version OWL2 \u00e9tablie en 2012 par le W3C.\u00a0 Il existe n\u00e9anmoins diff\u00e9rents langages ontologiques, tous bas\u00e9s sur un type de formalisme logique.\u00a0Le langage OWL 2, construit autour de RDF mais bien plus expressif, supporte, dans sa variante DL, une fonctionnalit\u00e9 appel\u00e9e \u00ab punning \u00bb, du mot anglais pun, calembour) qui permet qu\u2019une entit\u00e9 peut \u00eatre interpr\u00e9t\u00e9e soit comme une classe soit comme un individu en fonction du contexte syntaxique (on parle alors de m\u00e9taclasse).<\/p><p><strong>Par ailleurs,<\/strong> <strong>SKOS ou Simple Knowledge Organization System<\/strong> est une recommandation du W3C qui permet de repr\u00e9senter en RDF les d\u00e9finitions textuelles et de g\u00e9rer efficacement les notions li\u00e9es \u00e0 la langue.\u00a0<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2fb0b4a elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2fb0b4a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>En r\u00e9sum\u00e9,\u00a0 les ontologies peuvent jouer le r\u00f4le de langage commun entre les experts du domaine et les d\u00e9veloppeurs informatiques.<\/strong> L&rsquo;ontologie fournit la s\u00e9mantique d\u00e9finissant les objets, un champ d&rsquo;application et une description claire du syst\u00e8me, qui sont autant d\u2019\u00e9l\u00e9ments essentiels pour \u00eatre manipulables par les machines (\u00ab machine-actionable \u00bb).\u00a0<\/p><p><strong>N\u00e9anmoins, pour qu&rsquo;elles soient compr\u00e9hensibles par les experts du domaine,\u00a0 il est n\u00e9cessaire de documenter les classes et les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s avec des d\u00e9finitions textuelles<\/strong> et de les d\u00e9signer par des termes pr\u00e9cis, et si pertinent, avec des synonymes en plusieurs langues. <strong>Cette documentation peut prendre la forme d&rsquo;une terminologie ou d&rsquo;un th\u00e9saurus au format SKOS. <br \/><\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f48a307\" data-id=\"f48a307\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0f212a5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"0f212a5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-727d9a1 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"727d9a1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/rediger-definition-quelques-cles\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"R\u00e9diger une d\u00e9finitin : quelques cl\u00e9s\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/rediger-definition-quelques-cles\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR\u00e9diger une d\u00e9finitin : quelques cl\u00e9s\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c459858 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"c459858\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5827acd elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"5827acd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/2004\/REC-owl-guide-20040210\/#OWLGlossary\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"Glossaire OWL\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/2004\/REC-owl-guide-20040210\/#OWLGlossary\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGlossaire OWL\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-8965a3b elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"8965a3b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/skos-un-standard-pour-une-ressource-semantique-simple-et-fair\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"SKOS : un standard pour une ressource s\u00e9mantique simple et FAIR\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/skos-un-standard-pour-une-ressource-semantique-simple-et-fair\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSKOS : un standard pour une ressource s\u00e9mantique simple et FAIR\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-80cfb1f elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"80cfb1f\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-66 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3204a24\" data-id=\"3204a24\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-e208dc4 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"e208dc4\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Les_ontologies_en_pratique\"><\/span>Les ontologies en pratique<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-ec4514b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"ec4514b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Notions_utilisees_en_sciences_computationnelles\"><\/span>Notions utilis\u00e9es en sciences computationnelles<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2c5b35a elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"2c5b35a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Les ontologies int\u00e8grent des informations sur les classes, les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s et les individus, dont chacun peut avoir un identifiant qui est une r\u00e9f\u00e9rence URI. Certaines de ces propri\u00e9t\u00e9s doivent \u00eatre assorties d&rsquo;axiomes.<\/strong><\/p><p>Diff\u00e9rents termes sont utilis\u00e9s pour d\u00e9signer les \u00e9l\u00e9ments qui constituent les sch\u00e9mas conceptuels et les mod\u00e8les ontologiques informatiques. Des synonymes sont indiqu\u00e9s entre parenth\u00e8ses dans la liste ci-dessous :<\/p><ul><li><strong>Classe<\/strong> (type d&rsquo;entit\u00e9 ou d&rsquo;objet, owl:Class) : cat\u00e9gorie d&rsquo;\u00e9l\u00e9ments ayant des caract\u00e9ristiques ou propri\u00e9t\u00e9s communes et qui peuvent \u00eatre sujet ou objet des relations ou pr\u00e9dicats.<\/li><li><strong>Sous-classe<\/strong> (sous-concept, sous-type d\u00e9fini par la relation rdfs:subClassOf) :\u00a0 une sous-classe est une classe plus sp\u00e9cifique qui h\u00e9rite des propri\u00e9t\u00e9s de la classe parente (une sous-classe Y h\u00e9rite des propri\u00e9t\u00e9s de la classe X si Y <em>es<\/em><em>t un type de<\/em> X).<\/li><li><strong>Instances <\/strong>(donn\u00e9es, objets, individus d\u00e9finis par la relation rdf:type) : Ce sont les r\u00e9alisations concr\u00e8tes ou objets typ\u00e9s par les classes, qui elles sont abstraites. Les instances d&rsquo;une classe r\u00e9pondent aux crit\u00e8res qui d\u00e9finissent cette classe.<\/li><li><strong>Relations <\/strong>(pr\u00e9dicats ou \u2018slots\u2019, owl:ObjectProperty) : Elles d\u00e9finissent la mani\u00e8re dont les classes peuvent \u00eatre reli\u00e9es les unes aux autres sur la base de leurs instances.\u00a0 Les relations typiques sont<em> has, partOf, instanceOf, performedBy, <\/em>etc.<\/li><li><strong>Propri\u00e9t\u00e9s<\/strong> (r\u00f4les, caract\u00e9ristiques, attributs, owl:DataProperty). Elles correspondent \u00e0 des relations pointant vers une valeur textuelle ou num\u00e9rique appel\u00e9e \u00ab\u00a0litt\u00e9ral\u00a0\u00bb. Elles permettent d&rsquo;inclure des d\u00e9clarations sur les types de donn\u00e9es. Par exemple, l&rsquo;individu Yannis a un poids de 85 kg ou l&rsquo;EFSA a pour adresse \u00ab Via Carlo Magno 1A 43126 Parma &#8211; Italy \u00bb.<\/li><li><strong>Facettes<\/strong> (fonctionnalit\u00e9s, propri\u00e9t\u00e9s des objets, owl:Restriction) : elles d\u00e9finissent quelles sont les valeurs autoris\u00e9es d&rsquo;une propri\u00e9t\u00e9, cardinalit\u00e9, les caract\u00e9ristiques ou param\u00e8tres que les objets peuvent poss\u00e9der ou partager (domaine et port\u00e9e). Une restriction d\u00e9crit une classe d&rsquo;individus sur la base des relations auxquelles les membres de la classe participent. En d&rsquo;autres termes, une restriction est une sorte de classe, de la m\u00eame mani\u00e8re qu&rsquo;une classe nomm\u00e9e est une sorte de classe.<\/li><li><strong>Axiomes<\/strong> : assertions ou r\u00e8gles qui permettent d&rsquo;exprimer les relations qui sont toujours vraies entre les classes ou les instances de classes. Ce sont des \u00e9nonc\u00e9s exprim\u00e9s dans un langage formel comme la logique de description. Ils sont admis sans d\u00e9monstration et explicitent la conceptualisation.\u00a0Par exemple, l\u2019axiome de disjonction de deux classes stipule qu\u2019aucune instance d\u2019une classe ne peut \u00eatre \u00e9galement une instance de l\u2019autre classe, et donc que les classes s\u2019excluent mutuellement. Ainsi une instance de la classe Herbivore ne peut pas \u00eatre une instance de la classe Carnivore.<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-21bfffa elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"21bfffa\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>En r\u00e9sum\u00e9, les classes sont les principaux \u00e9l\u00e9ments constitutifs d&rsquo;une ontologie et sont utilis\u00e9es pour repr\u00e9senter et d\u00e9crire les concepts d&rsquo;un domaine.<\/strong> L&rsquo;\u00e9pine dorsale d&rsquo;une ontologie consiste en une hi\u00e9rarchie de concepts de g\u00e9n\u00e9ralisation\/sp\u00e9cialisation (taxonomie).<\/p><p>Les relations entre les classes jouent un r\u00f4le analogue \u00e0 celui d&rsquo;un verbe grammatical, en ce sens qu&rsquo;elles permettent de cr\u00e9er les triplets sujet-pr\u00e9dicat-objet qui constituent la base de RDF. Elles doivent \u00eatre d\u00e9finies en r\u00e9f\u00e9rence \u00e0 leur domaine (domain) et \u00e0 leur \u00e9tendue (range), qui sont analogues au sujet et \u00e0 l&rsquo;objet en grammaire. D&rsquo;autres restrictions ou contraintes logiques peuvent s&rsquo;appliquer pour d\u00e9finir la s\u00e9mantique et permettre d&rsquo;appliquer le raisonnement (inf\u00e9rences).<\/p><p><strong>L&rsquo;outil le plus utilis\u00e9 pour construire ou visualiser une ontologie est le logiciel Prot\u00e9g\u00e9.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-64cdd01\" data-id=\"64cdd01\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2a06eba elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"2a06eba\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-84547f5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"84547f5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-047dbc2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"047dbc2\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6233bd68 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"6233bd68\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3a4a316d\" data-id=\"3a4a316d\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5706eea elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"5706eea\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c574234 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"c574234\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Les_differents_types_dontologies\"><\/span>Les diff\u00e9rents types d&rsquo;ontologies<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-06bcab0 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"06bcab0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p>Il existe diff\u00e9rents niveaux d\u2019ontologie, selon leur degr\u00e9 de formalisme, d\u2019abstraction (g\u00e9n\u00e9ralisation ou sp\u00e9cialisation) ou les objectifs qu\u2019elles poursuivent [7].<b><br \/><\/b><\/p><p><strong>Une ontologie de premier niveau <\/strong><strong>ou fondationnelle <\/strong><strong>(top level) est une ontologie qui d\u00e9finit les cat\u00e9gories les plus g\u00e9n\u00e9rales, au sommet de la hi\u00e9rarchie, qui peuvent \u00eatre partag\u00e9es par diff\u00e9rents domaines.<\/strong> Comme il n&rsquo;est pas si facile de produire et d&rsquo;approuver des ontologies fondationnelles de fa\u00e7on unanime, plusieurs ontologies de haut niveau ont \u00e9t\u00e9 produites au fil du temps.<\/p><p>On peut citer par exemple BFO (Basic Formal Ontology), DOLCE (Descriptive Ontology for Linguistic and Cognitive Engineering), ou encore UFO (Unified Foundational Ontology).<\/p><p><strong>Les ontologies de niveau sup\u00e9rieur sont agnostiques (ind\u00e9pendantes d\u2019un domaine particulier).<\/strong> Elles\u00a0servent principalement \u00e0 assurer l&rsquo;interop\u00e9rabilit\u00e9 s\u00e9mantique des ontologies entre plusieurs domaines.\u00a0Elles servent de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence pour le raisonnement et s&rsquo;attachent g\u00e9n\u00e9ralement \u00e0 d\u00e9finir les m\u00eames types d\u2019entit\u00e9s g\u00e9n\u00e9riques appel\u00e9es \u00ab\u00a0universals\u00a0\u00bb en anglais [8] :<\/p><ul><li>entit\u00e9s abstraites et entit\u00e9s mat\u00e9rielles<\/li><li>entit\u00e9 ind\u00e9pendante (substance) et entit\u00e9 d\u00e9pendante (qualit\u00e9, caract\u00e9ristique)<\/li><li>continuant (ou endurant) et occurrent (ou perdurant)<\/li><li>temps et espace<\/li><\/ul>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a453911 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"a453911\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>L<\/strong><b>es ontologies de niveau interm\u00e9diaire (middle level) <\/b><b>sont souvent des ontologies de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence qu&rsquo;on qualifie aussi de \u00ab\u00a0core ontologies\u00a0\u00bb ou \u00ab\u00a0utilities ontologies\u00a0\u00bb.<\/b>\u00a0 La plupart du temps, les ontologies de niveau interm\u00e9diaire \u00e9tendent une ontologie de niveau sup\u00e9rieur dans une perspective modulaire [9].\u00a0 Par exemple, les ontologies Information Artifact Ontology (IAO) et Ontology for Biomedical Investigations (OBI) viennent compl\u00e9ter BFO avec des entit\u00e9s d\u00e9crivant les informations (donn\u00e9es, publications, codes, logiciels&#8230;) et des processus planifi\u00e9s (planned process) venant sp\u00e9cialiser les entit\u00e9s d\u00e9finies comme continuants ou occurents au niveau fondationnel [10-11]. <strong>A ce niveau, on trouve aussi des patrons de conception d&rsquo;ontologie<\/strong> (<strong>Ontology Design Patterns ou ODP<\/strong>), une solution propos\u00e9e pour faciliter le d\u00e9veloppement d&rsquo;ontologies et aider les utilisateurs \u00e0 \u00e9viter certaines des erreurs de mod\u00e9lisation les plus fr\u00e9quentes. Les ODP trouvent leur origine dans des approches similaires en g\u00e9nie logiciel, o\u00f9 les mod\u00e8les de conception logicielle sont devenus un aspect essentiel du d\u00e9veloppement logiciel [12].<\/p><p><strong>Viennent ensuite l<\/strong><strong>es ontologies de plus bas niveau qui sont sp\u00e9cifiques \u00e0 un domaine ou \u00e0 un type d\u2019application ou de t\u00e2che.<\/strong><strong>\u00a0<\/strong>Ces ontologies rassemblent des connaissances op\u00e9rationnelles, c&rsquo;est-\u00e0-dire des concepts pertinents pour un domaine sp\u00e9cifique ou une activit\u00e9 donn\u00e9e. Ces ontologies sont souvent cr\u00e9\u00e9es en r\u00e9utilisant des concepts existants (ce qui est la pratique recommand\u00e9e) mais elles peuvent aussi parfois \u00eatre construites \u00e0 fa\u00e7on pour r\u00e9pondre \u00e0 des besoins sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/p><p><strong>En termes <\/strong><strong>d\u2019expressivit\u00e9<\/strong><strong>, les ontologies peuvent \u00eatre class\u00e9es en deux cat\u00e9gories : <\/strong><strong>lourdes et l\u00e9g\u00e8res<\/strong>. Les ontologies lourdes comprennent tous les \u00e9l\u00e9ments n\u00e9cessaires (tels qu&rsquo;une axiomatisation riche) pour qu&rsquo;il soit possible de faire des d\u00e9ductions sur les connaissances qu&rsquo;elles contiennent. En revanche, les ontologies l\u00e9g\u00e8res manquent d&rsquo;axiomes et d&rsquo;autres contraintes, et il est donc tr\u00e8s difficile de raisonner dessus mais elles offrent plus de souplesse [13].<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-f6fbad9 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"f6fbad9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>L&rsquo;approche recommand\u00e9e par le W3C pour construire une ontologie\u00a0 consiste \u00e0 r\u00e9utiliser au maximum les concepts en \u00e9tendant les classes existantes au lieu de les modifier, en ajoutant des sous-classes et en associant de nouvelles propri\u00e9t\u00e9s. <\/strong>Cette m\u00e9thode permet de pr\u00e9server l&rsquo;int\u00e9grit\u00e9 des mod\u00e8les tout en offrant des adaptations sp\u00e9cifiques.<\/p><p><strong>Des m\u00e9thodes d&rsquo;aide \u00e0 la conception d&rsquo;ontologie comme Linked Open Terms (LOT) sont \u00e0 utiliser.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-9ae691a elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"9ae691a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5b0f29a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading\" data-id=\"5b0f29a\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"heading.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default\"><span class=\"ez-toc-section\" id=\"Quelques_ontologies_de_reference\"><\/span>Quelques ontologies de r\u00e9f\u00e9rence<span class=\"ez-toc-section-end\"><\/span><\/h3>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-22e2987 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"22e2987\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Des efforts consid\u00e9rables de normalisation des ontologies et des langages du web s\u00e9mantique\u00a0\u00a0ont \u00e9t\u00e9 r\u00e9alis\u00e9s au cours de la derni\u00e8re d\u00e9cennie et t\u00e9moignent \u00e9galement de la maturation du domaine.<\/strong>\u00a0<\/p><p>Plusieurs ontologies et vocabulaires sont devenus des recommandations du World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), l\u2019organisme de normalisation du web :<\/p><ul><li><b>L&rsquo;ontologie du temps <\/b>(OWL-Time), qui d\u00e9crit les propri\u00e9t\u00e9s temporelles des ressources.<\/li><li><b>L&rsquo;ontologie du r\u00e9seaux des capteurs SSN et sa version all\u00e9g\u00e9e <\/b><strong>Sensor, Observation, Sample, and Actuator<\/strong> (SOSA) pour repr\u00e9senter les observations [14].<\/li><li><b>L&rsquo;ontologie de provenance<\/b> (PROV-O), qui d\u00e9crit les informations provenant de diff\u00e9rents syst\u00e8mes.<\/li><li><b>Le cube de donn\u00e9es <\/b>(RDF Data Cube Vocabulary), qui permet la publication de donn\u00e9es multidimensionnelles sur le web.<\/li><\/ul><p>On peut aussi citer des ontologies produites par les communaut\u00e9s de pratique comme par exemple <strong>The data analysis and management ontology<\/strong> (EDAM) ou <strong>Just Enough Results Model<\/strong> (JERM) utilis\u00e9es en bioinformatique, ou encore <strong>GeoNames Ontology<\/strong> pour les informations g\u00e9ospatiales. Plusieurs ontologies ont \u00e9galement \u00e9t\u00e9 propos\u00e9es pour d\u00e9finir les unit\u00e9 de mesure, comme <strong>Quantities Units Dimensions and Types<\/strong> (QUDT).<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-50e3d33 elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor\" data-id=\"50e3d33\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"text-editor.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<p><strong>Pour que les ontologies soient utilis\u00e9es dans la pratique, elles doivent \u00eatre stock\u00e9es dans des entrep\u00f4ts ouverts <\/strong>et, si n\u00e9cessaire, faire l&rsquo;objet d&rsquo;une validation par un raisonneur.<\/p><p><strong>Pour trouver des ontologies, on peut consulter des entrep\u00f4ts et catalogues d\u00e9di\u00e9s.<\/strong><\/p><p>Il existe des communaut\u00e9s tr\u00e8s actives dans certains domaines, comme par exemple le <strong>consortium OBO Foundry (Open Biological and Biomedical Ontology Foundry)<\/strong> qui rassemble plus d\u2019une centaine d\u2019ontologies ayant trait aux sciences du vivant, qui ont adopt\u00e9 des principes communs.<\/p><p><strong>Dans le domaine de l&rsquo;agriculture, l&rsquo;alimentation et l&rsquo;environnement, la plupart des ressources s\u00e9mantiques produites \u00e0 INRAE sont h\u00e9berg\u00e9es sur AgroPortal.<\/strong><\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-16828920\" data-id=\"16828920\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-95b0b43 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"95b0b43\" data-element_type=\"widget\" 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href=\"https:\/\/obi-ontology.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"OBI\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/obi-ontology.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOBI\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5de96d0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"5de96d0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-19898cd elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"19898cd\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-132cda0 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"132cda0\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/construire-un-vocabulaire-lot\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"Construire un vocabulaire avec la m\u00e9thodologie LOT\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/construire-un-vocabulaire-lot\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tConstruire un vocabulaire avec la m\u00e9thodologie LOT\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-c96dad1 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"c96dad1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/cycle-de-vie-dune-ontologie\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"Cycle de vie d&#039;une ontologie\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/cycle-de-vie-dune-ontologie\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCycle de vie d'une ontologie\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b24c2e5 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"b24c2e5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-3cced4b elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"3cced4b\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/owl-time\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"OWL-Time\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/owl-time\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOWL-Time\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-bce2349 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"bce2349\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/vocab-ssn\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"SOSA\/SSN\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/vocab-ssn\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSOSA\/SSN\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7a7db5d elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"7a7db5d\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/prov-o\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"PROV-O\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/prov-o\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tPROV-O\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-b9735f1 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"b9735f1\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/vocab-data-cube\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"RDF Data Cube vocabulary\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.w3.org\/TR\/vocab-data-cube\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRDF Data Cube vocabulary\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-82e81be elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"82e81be\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/bioportal.bioontology.org\/ontologies\/EDAM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"EDAM\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/bioportal.bioontology.org\/ontologies\/EDAM\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEDAM\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-5ba701c elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"5ba701c\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/jermontology.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"JERM\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/jermontology.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJERM\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-6ed9fdb elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"6ed9fdb\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"http:\/\/www.geonames.org\/ontology\/documentation.html\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"GeoNames Ontology\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"http:\/\/www.geonames.org\/ontology\/documentation.html\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGeoNames Ontology\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-0e84806 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"0e84806\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.qudt.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"QUDT\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/www.qudt.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tQUDT\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1c511e9 elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer\" data-id=\"1c511e9\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"spacer.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-spacer-inner\"><\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-2336c3f5 elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"2336c3f5\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/entrepots-catalogues\/\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"Entrep\u00f4ts et catalogues de vocabulaire\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-search-plus\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/entrepots-catalogues\/\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tEntrep\u00f4ts et catalogues de vocabulaire\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-a70ee8e elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"a70ee8e\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" 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href=\"https:\/\/obofoundry.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"OBO Foundry\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/obofoundry.org\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOBO Foundry\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-1cfdece elementor-position-inline-start e-transform elementor-view-default elementor-mobile-position-block-start elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-box\" data-id=\"1cfdece\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-settings=\"{&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;1&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleX_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_tablet&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]},&quot;_transform_scaleY_effect_mobile&quot;:{&quot;unit&quot;:&quot;px&quot;,&quot;size&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;sizes&quot;:[]}}\" data-widget_type=\"icon-box.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-wrapper\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-icon\">\n\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/agroportal.lirmm.fr\/\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"elementor-icon elementor-animation-grow\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-label=\"AgroProtal\">\n\t\t\t\t<i aria-hidden=\"true\" class=\"fas fa-sign-out-alt\"><\/i>\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-content\">\n\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-icon-box-title\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a href=\"https:\/\/agroportal.lirmm.fr\/\" target=\"_blank\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAgroProtal\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-50cfc5c7 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"50cfc5c7\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-66e3de84\" data-id=\"66e3de84\" data-element_type=\"column\" data-e-type=\"column\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-cd31d34 elementor-widget elementor-widget-toggle\" data-id=\"cd31d34\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"toggle.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-2151\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-2151\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><i class=\"fas fa-caret-right\"><\/i><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><i class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened fas fa-caret-up\"><\/i><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">R\u00e9f\u00e9rences bibliographiques cit\u00e9es dans l'article<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-2151\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-2151\"><ul><li>[1] Gruber, T.R. (1993). A translation approach to portable ontology specifications, <em>Knowledge Acquisition<\/em>, Volume 5, Issue 2,\u00a0 Pages 199-220. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/knac.1993.1008\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/knac.1993.1008<\/a><\/li><li>[2] Borst, W. (1997). Construction of Engineering Ontologies. <em>PhD thesis<\/em>, Institute for Telematica and Information Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.<\/li><li>[3] Studer, R., Benjamins, V.R., Fensel, D. (1998). Knowledge Engineering: Principles and Methods. <em>Data &amp; Knowledge Engineering<\/em>, 25, 161-198. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0169-023X(97)00056-6\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/S0169-023X(97)00056-6<\/a><\/li><li>[4] Noy, N.F. and McGuinness, D. L. (2001). Ontology Development 101: A Guide to Creating Your First Ontology, <em>Knowledge Systems Laboratory<\/em>, vol 32. <a href=\"http:\/\/protege.stanford.edu\/publications\/ontology_development\/ontology101.pdf\">http:\/\/protege.stanford.edu\/publications\/ontology_development\/ontology101.pdf<\/a><\/li><li>[5] Guarino, N., Oberle, D., Staab, S., Studer, R. (2009). What is an ontology in : <em>Handbook on ontologies<\/em>, Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-92673-3_0\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-92673-3_0<\/a><\/li><li>[6] Vezina, R. (2009).\u00a0 La r\u00e9daction de d\u00e9finitions terminologiques. <a href=\"https:\/\/www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca\/pdf\/redaction_def_terminologiques_2009.pdf\">https: \/\/www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca\/pdf\/redaction_def_terminologiques_2009.pdf<\/a><\/li><li>[7] Obrst, L.(2010).\u00a0 Ontological Architectures. In: Poli, R., Healy, M., Kameas, A. (eds)<em>, Theory and Applications of Ontology: Computer Applications.<\/em> Springer, Dordrecht. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-90-481-8847-5_2\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-90-481-8847-5_2<\/a><\/li><li>[8] Jansen, L. (2008), Top-level ontologies, in: Munn, K. and Smith, B. (eds),\u00a0 <em>Applied ontology, an introduction<\/em>, Volume 9 in the series Metaphysics Research, Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin.<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860.173\"> https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860.173<\/a><\/li><li>[9] Beverley, J., Colle, G. D., Jensen, M., Benson, C., &amp; Smith, B. (2024). Middle Architecture Criteria, arXiv 2404.17757, <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2404.17757\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.48550\/arXiv.2404.17757<\/a><\/li><li>[10] Ceusters W. (2012). An information artifact ontology perspective on data collections and associated representational artifacts. <i>Studies in health technology and informatics<\/i>, <i>180<\/i>, 68\u201372. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/978-1-61499-101-4-68\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/978-1-61499-101-4-68<\/a><\/li><li>[11] Bandrowski, A., Brinkman, R., Brochhausen, M., Brush, M. H., Bug, B., Chibucos, M. C., Clancy, K., Courtot, M., Derom, D., Dumontier, M., Fan, L., Fostel, J., Fragoso, G., Gibson, F., Gonzalez-Beltran, A., Haendel, M. A., He, Y., Heiskanen, M., Hernandez-Boussard, T., Jensen, M., \u2026 Zheng, J. (2016). The Ontology for Biomedical Investigations. <i>PloS one<\/i>, <i>11<\/i>(4), e0154556. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0154556\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1371\/journal.pone.0154556<\/a><\/li><li>[12]\u00a0Keets C.M. (2020). An introduction to ontology engineering, v1.5.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/people.cs.uct.ac.za\/~mkeet\/OEbook\/\"><u>https:\/\/people.cs.uct.ac.za\/~mkeet\/OEbook\/<\/u><\/a>\u00a0<\/li><li>[13] Nguyen V. (2011). Ontologies and Information Systems: a Literature Survey, Defence Science and Technology Organisation Edinburgh, Australia. <a href=\"https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/sti\/tr\/pdf\/ADA546186.pdf\">https:\/\/apps.dtic.mil\/sti\/tr\/pdf\/ADA546186.pdf<\/a><\/li><li>[14] Janowicz, K., Haller, A., Cox, S.J.D., Le Phuoc, D., Lefran\u00e7ois, M. (2019). SOSA: A lightweight ontology for sensors, observations, samples, and actuators. <em>Journal of Web Semantics<\/em>, 56, 1-10. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.websem.2018.06.003\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.websem.2018.06.003<\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-7a364b6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-toggle\" data-id=\"7a364b6\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"toggle.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-toggle-item\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-1281\" class=\"elementor-tab-title\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"button\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1281\" aria-expanded=\"false\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon elementor-toggle-icon-left\" aria-hidden=\"true\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-closed\"><i class=\"fas fa-caret-right\"><\/i><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened\"><i class=\"elementor-toggle-icon-opened fas fa-caret-up\"><\/i><\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"elementor-toggle-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Pour aller plus loin<\/a>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-1281\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"region\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-1281\"><ul><li>Grimm S., Abecker A., V\u00f6lker J. , Studer R. (2011). Ontologies and the semantic web, in: Handbook of Semantic Web Technologies, Springer, pp. 507\u2013579. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-92913-0\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/978-3-540-92913-0<\/a><\/li><li>Guizzardi G, Botti Benevides A, Fonseca CM, Porello D, Almeida JPA, Prince Sales T. UFO: Unified Foundational Ontology. <em>Applied Ontology<\/em>. 2022;17(1):167-210. doi:<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/AO-210256\"><u>10.3233\/AO-210256<\/u><\/a><\/li><li>Jensen, M., De Colle, G., Kindya, S., More, C., Cox, A.P., Beverley, J. (2024). The Common Core Ontologies, in: <em>Frontiers in Artificial Science and Applications<\/em>, vol 394, Proceedings of the 14th International Conference (FOIS 2024). <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/FAIA241292\"><u>https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/FAIA241292<\/u><\/a><\/li><li>Munn K., and Smith B. (2008). Applied Ontology: An Introduction, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860\">https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860<\/a><\/li><li><div class=\"csl-left-margin\">Otte JN, Beverley J, Ruttenberg A. BFO: Basic Formal Ontology. <i>Applied Ontology<\/i>. 2022;17(1):17-43. doi:<a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/AO-220262\">10.3233\/AO-220262<\/a><\/div><\/li><li>Roussey C.,\u00a0 Pinet F., Kang O. , Corcho M.A. (2011). An introduction to ontologies and ontology engineering, in: Ontologies in Urban Development Projects, Springer. <a href=\"https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007\/978-0-85729-724-2_2\">https:\/\/link.springer.com\/chapter\/10.1007\/978-0-85729-724-2_2<\/a><\/li><li>Smith B., Basic Formal Ontology (BFO 2020), consult\u00e9 le 10\/05\/2025,\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/uflMfvI-ZxI?si=qiX0x6TWgN5r2ndF\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/uflMfvI-ZxI?si=qiX0x6TWgN5r2ndF<\/a> et <a href=\"https:\/\/youtu.be\/GWkk5AfRCpM?si=w6LJSGo7yattA6ky\">https:\/\/youtu.be\/GWkk5AfRCpM?si=w6LJSGo7yattA6ky<\/a><\/li><li>Tudorache, T. (2020). Ontology engineering: Current state, challenges, and future directions. <em>Semantic Web<\/em>. 11(1):125-138. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860\">https:\/\/doi.org\/<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3233\/SW-190382\"><u>10.3233\/SW-190382<\/u><\/a><\/li><li>Tzitzikas Y., Marketakis Y., Mountantonakis M., Fafalios P., Theodoridou M., Axaridou A., Kritsotaki A., and Bekiari C. (2024). Architectural Suggestions for Ontology Management. <em>EFSA supporting publication<\/em> 21(12):EN-9118.\u00a0 <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860\">https:\/\/doi.org\/<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9118\"><u>10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9118<\/u><\/a><\/li><li>Tzitzikas Y., Marketakis Y., Fafalios P., Kritsotaki A., Axaridou A., Mountantonakis M., Bekiari C., and Theodoridou M. (2024). Governance Model for Ontologies. <em>EFSA supporting publication<\/em> 21(12):EN-9119. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860\">https:\/\/doi.org\/<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9119\"><u>10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9119<\/u><\/a><\/li><li>Tzitzikas Y., Fafalios P., Kritsotaki A., Axaridou A., Marketakis Y., Mountantonakis M., Bekiari C., and Theodoridou M. (2024). Ontologies and Case Studies. <em>EFSA supporting publication<\/em> 21(12):EN-9120. <a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1515\/9783110324860\">https:\/\/doi.org\/<\/a><a href=\"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9120\"><u>10.2903\/sp.efsa.2024.EN-9120<\/u><\/a><\/li><\/ul><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-element elementor-element-881fd00 elementor-tabs-view-horizontal elementor-widget elementor-widget-tabs\" data-id=\"881fd00\" data-element_type=\"widget\" data-e-type=\"widget\" data-widget_type=\"tabs.default\">\n\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-widget-container\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tabs\">\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tabs-wrapper\" role=\"tablist\" >\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-1421\" class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-desktop-title\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1421\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Citer cette page<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-1422\" class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-desktop-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1422\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Auteurs<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-1423\" class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-desktop-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1423\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Relecteurs<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-title-1424\" class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-desktop-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1424\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Dates<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tabs-content-wrapper\" role=\"tablist\" aria-orientation=\"vertical\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-mobile-title\" aria-selected=\"true\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"0\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1421\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Citer cette page<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-1421\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"1\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-1421\" tabindex=\"0\" hidden=\"false\"><p>INRAE (2025), <em>Introduction aux ontologies<\/em>, Vocabulaires Ouverts@INRAE, https:\/\/istblogs.d-marheine.com\/lovinra\/focus-sur-les-ontologies\/<\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-mobile-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1422\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Auteurs<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-1422\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"2\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-1422\" tabindex=\"0\" hidden=\"hidden\"><p>Magalie Weber<\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-mobile-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1423\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Relecteurs<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-1423\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"3\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-1423\" tabindex=\"0\" hidden=\"hidden\"><p>Sophie Aubin, Anne-Sophie Bage<\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-tab-title elementor-tab-mobile-title\" aria-selected=\"false\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"tab\" tabindex=\"-1\" aria-controls=\"elementor-tab-content-1424\" aria-expanded=\"false\">Dates<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<div id=\"elementor-tab-content-1424\" class=\"elementor-tab-content elementor-clearfix\" data-tab=\"4\" role=\"tabpanel\" aria-labelledby=\"elementor-tab-title-1424\" tabindex=\"0\" hidden=\"hidden\"><p>Date de cr\u00e9ation : 29\/08\/2025 &#8211; Derni\u00e8re Mise \u00e0 jour :14\/11\/2025<\/p><\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<section class=\"elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-63262905 elementor-section-height-min-height elementor-section-stretched elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-items-middle wpr-particle-no wpr-jarallax-no wpr-parallax-no wpr-sticky-section-no wpr-equal-height-no\" data-id=\"63262905\" data-element_type=\"section\" data-e-type=\"section\" data-settings=\"{&quot;shape_divider_bottom&quot;:&quot;waves&quot;,&quot;background_background&quot;:&quot;classic&quot;,&quot;stretch_section&quot;:&quot;section-stretched&quot;}\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"elementor-shape 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class=\"elementor-widget-wrap\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/section>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Premi\u00e8re \u00e9tape de votre voyage dans le monde fabuleux des ontologies.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":117,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"default","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"default","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"set","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center 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